2011 © Lolita Nikolova, PhD
Created: 1-20-11
Last updated: 1-20-11
Archaeobotanical taxa from archaeological sites and pollen analyses
(including flora with possible medicinal use in prehistory)

Bosnia

Kakan
Cereals: Triticum compactum Host.;
Legumes: Pisum sativum var. arvense; Lens esculenta L.
Fruits: Cornus mas L.; Pirus malus L.


Bulgaria

Ezero (Денъл 1979). Early Bronze Age.
Cereals: Triticum monococcum L. (einkorn); Triticum dicoccum (emmer); Triticum aestivum; Hordeum hexastichum.
Legumes: Lens sp. (lentils); Pisum sp. (peas); Vicia cf. sativa; Vicia faba.
Fruits: Vitis vinifera; Rubus sp. (blackberry); Prunus sp.; Cornus mas (cornelian cherry).

Golyamo Delchevo (Хопф 1975). Copper Age
Cereals: Triticum monococcum L. (einkorn); Triticum dicoccum Schrank (emmer); Hordeum vulgare L. polistichum var. nudum.
Legumes: vicia cp. ervilia L. Willd.
Fruits: sambucus nigra L. (elder); sambucus ebulus L. (dwarf elder); quercus sp (oak fruit);
Weedy and medical herbaceous plants: bromus sp. (brome grass); polygonum convolvulus L.;
Trees and bushes: Quercus sp. (oak); Castanea sativa Mill.; Viburnum lantana L.; Cornus sanguinea L.; Ulmus sp..

Gradeshnitsa (Лисицына & Филипович 1980: 26).
Cereals: Triticum monococcum L.; Triticum dicoccum Schrank; tritcum cp., Hordeum sp.
Fruits: Corylus avellana L.
Trees: Quercus sp.

Ovcharovo (Янушевич 1983). Copper Age.
Cereals: Triticum monococcum L.; Triticum dicoccum Schrank; tritcum cp. durum; triticum compactum host.; triticum spelta; hordeum vulgare
L. (barley)
Legumes: vicia cp. ervilia L. Willd.; lathyrus sp.; pasum sativum sp.
Fruit: Cornus mas L. (Cornelian cherry).

Stara Zagora – Azmak (Лисицына & Филипович 1980: 23-24). Neolithic.
Cereals: Triticum monococcum L.; Triticum dicoccum Schrank; Triticum aestivum; Triticum aestivo-compactum Schiem.; Hordeum vulgare L.
polystichum; Pisum sp.; Lens culinaris Medik.; Lens esculenta Moench.
Non-cultivated plants: Lathyrus sativus L.; Vicia Ervilia Willd.
Fruits: Sambucus sp.
Trees: Fraxinus excelsior L.; Quercus pubescens Willd.; Quercus sp.

Veselinovo – Maleva Mogila (Лисицына & Филипович 1980: 29).
Cereals: Triticum dicoccum Schrank.;
Legumes: Pisum elatius M. B. (фуражен грах)
Non-cultivated plants: Galium aparine L.; Lithospermum arvense L.; Polygonum convolvulus L.; Vicia ervilia Willd.


China

Xinjiang, China. 2500 BP
Boraginaceae
Fruits glued on two wooden tubs were discovered in the Yanghai Tombs of Xinjiang, China. The tombs were built about 2500 years ago.
Morphological and anatomical features of fruits show them to be Lithospermum officinale L. The fruits were assembled into obtriangular
shapes along the tub mouth. This is a report of people using plant fruits for decorative purposes 2500 years before present.
Reference: Jiang, Xiao Li, Liu, Wang, & Li 2007.

Greece

Achilleon (Лисицына & Филипович 1980: 24-26). Prehistory, Neolithic.
Cereals: Triticum dicoccum; Triticum sp.; Hordeum sp.; Avena sp. (= Avena fatua, Avena strigosa, Avena sativa)
Trees: Quercus sp.

Argissa (Лисицына & Филипович 1980: 24). Prehistory, Neolithic.
Cereals: Triticum monococcum L.; Triticum dicoccum; Hordeum vulgare/distichon; Panicum sp.
Legumes: Lens esculenta L.
Non-cultivated plants: Triticum aegilopoides = Triticum boeoticum Boiss. Em Schiem.

Dikili Tash (Лисицына & Филипович 1980: 27)
Fruits: Pirus amygdaliformis Vill.

Dimini (Лисицына & Филипович 1980: 27). Prehistory, Neolithic.
Fruits: Ficus carica; Pirus amygdaliformis; Prunus dulcus (Miller.) D.A. Webb (Prunus amygadalus Batsch.)

Franchti cave, Greece. Paleolithic and later periods.
Boraginaceae
In the Paleolithic Period (ca. 20,000 - 8300 B.C.) inhabitants of the cave were probably seasonal hunter-gatherers. There is no definite
evidence of plant gathering before ca. 11,000 B.C., although large numbers of seeds of the Boraginaceae family were found which may have
come from plants gathered to furnish soft "bedding" or for dye, which their roots may have supplied.
References: Franchti cave (Online).

Kephala (Лисицына & Филипович 1980: 28). Prehistory.
Non-cultivated plants: Lathyrus sp.; Polygonum sp.

Knossos (Лисицына & Филипович 1980: 28). Prehistory.
Cereals: Triticum monoccocum L.; Triticum aestivum L., Hordeum distichum L., Panicum miliaceum L., Avena sp.
Legumes: Pisum sp., Lens sp.
Non-cultivated plants: Vicia faba L.; Vicia sp.
Trees: Quercus sp.

Lerna (Лисицына & Филипович 1980: 29). Prehistory.
Arbutus unedo L.

Nea Nikomedia (Лисицына & Филипович 1980: 29).
Cereals: Triticum monococcum L.; Triticum dicoccum (Schrank.) Schübl.; Hordeum vulgare L. var. nudum;
Legumes: Pisum sativum L.; lens culinaris Medik. V. microsperma (Baumg.) Barulina.
Non-cultivated plants: Vicia ervilia (L. Willd.; Gramineae; Leguminosae.
Fruits: Cornus mas L.; Prunus cf. spinosa L. (дива джанка)


India

Bengal Basin, India. Holocene.
Boraginaceae
Reference: Sen & Banerjee 1990.


Iraq

M'lefaat). Aceramic Neolithic.
Boraginaceae
Two Boraginaceae taxa were found at M'lefaat Litho spermum cf. tenuiflorum (fig. 4-h) and Heliotropium sp. (fig. 4-g). Lithospermum have a
silicified surface and most were uncharred. It is therefore difficult to say whether they are intrusions or archaeological specimens, particularly
as they are abundant in the archaeobotanical assemblage. The nutlets are obliquely ovate, have a truncated base and a pointy apex. The
specimens of M'lefaat have a distinctive wart-like sur face, have prominent humps on both sides and a relatively small triangular base22.
They resemble the species L. tenuifl orumillu strated in van Zeist and Bakker-Heeres23 and found in the Institute of Archaeology's (London)
reference collection. L. tenuiflorum is commonly found in fields and among steppe vegetation. Heliotropium specimens are recognizable by
their compressed nutlets with a rugulose surface. Heliotropium species are found in steppic environment and as a weed of dry land
cultivation.
Reference: Gale, Nesbitt, & Savard 2003.

Macedonia

Anza (Лисицына & Филипович 1980: 24). Neolithic.
Bushes and trees: Castanea sp.; Fraxinus sp.; Euonimus sp.; Juniperus sp.; Ligustrum sp.; Pinus sp.; Platanus sp.; Quercus sp.; Salix sp.;
Ulmus sp.

Nigeria

? Lake Chad Basin, Nigeria. Late Holocene.
Boraginaceae
Late Holocene climatic changes caused a large scale regression of the Lake Chad shoreline followed by an expansion of settlements into
previously unexplored territories. Numerous Final Stone Age sites of the Gajiganna Culture (1,800 to 800 B.C.) in the Lake Chad Basin
(northeast Nigeria) yielded plant impressions in potsherds. The ceramics of Phase I (1,800–1,400 B.C.) were mineral tempered, and plant
impressions, mainly of Paniceae, were caused only by incidental inclusion. In contrast, a considerable number of the sherds from Phase II
(1,500–800 B.C.) were intentionally tempered with chaff derived from domesticated pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum), wild Paniceae and
wild rice species (Oryza cf. barthii and O. cf. longistaminata). This plant spectrum suggests the exploitation of the wet wild areas, and also the
cultivation of pearl millet on sandy soils. The evidence suggests that agricultural practices were established late and were introduced from
elsewhere. During the time of seasonally occupied sites in Phase I, the subsistence strategy was based on herding, fishing, and gathering,
while in Phase II there are signs of permanent settlements and agriculture. The evidence from the plant impressions indicates that in the
Final Stone Age Gajiganna Culture around 1,000–800 B.C., pearl millet became well established while the gathering of wild millets and rice
was still practised.
Reference: Klee, Zach, & Stika 2004.

Serbia

Divostin (pollen analysis) (Grüger & Beug 1988) Neolithic.
Pinus; Picea; Abies.
Quercus; Ulmus; Tilia; Alnus; Betula; Corylus; Betulaceae cf. Fagas Hedera.
Artemisia; Tubuliflorae; Liguliflorae; Caryophyllaceae; Cereal type; other Gramineae; Varia.
Arboreal pollen; Non-arboreal pollen.

Grivac (pollen analysis) (Grüger & Beug 1988) Neolithic.
Pinus; Picea; Abies
Quercus; Ulmus; Tilia; Alnus; Betula; Corylus; Betulacecae cf. Fagus Hedera
Centaurea jacea-type; Artemisia; Tubuliflorae; Liguliflorae; Caryophyllacea; Chenopodiaceae; Cruciferae;
Dipsacus; Cereal-type; other Gramineae; Plantago; Ianceolata-type; Rubiaceae; Umbelliferae; Varia.
Arboreal pollen; non-arboreal pollen

Opovo (Borojević 2006). Late Neolithic – Early Copper Age.
Cereals: Triticum turgidum L. ssp. dicoccum (emmer); Triticum monococcum L. spp. monococcum (einkorn); Hordeum vulgare L. vulgare
(barley).
Legumes: Lens culinaris Medik. ssp. microsperma (lentils); Vicia L. (vetch-type).
Oil and fiber plants: Linum usitatissimum L. (fiber flax).
Fruits: Cornus mas L. (cornelian cherry); Sambucus nigra L. (elder); Sambucus ebulus L. (dwarf elder); Vitis vinifera L. ssp. sylverstris
(grape); Rubus L. (blackberries); Fragaria vesca L. (wild strawberry)
Water chestnuts: Trapa natans L. (water chestnut)
Noncultivated (herbaceous) plants: Lithospermum officinale (white gromwell); Bromus L. (brome grass); Lolium L. (rye grass); Solanaceae
(nightshade family); Polygonum L. (knotweed); Galium aparine L. (bedstraw); Chenopodium L. (goosefoot)

Selevac (McLaren & Hubbard 1990).
Cereals: Triticum monococcum L.; Triticum dicoccum; Hordeum vulgare/distichon.
Legumes: Lens sp. (lentils); Pisum sp. (peas);
Corylus avellana (hazelnut).
Fruts: Cornus mas L. (cornelian cherry); Pyrus communis (pears); Solanaceae - Physalis alkekengi (bladder cherry/winter cherry) and
Silanum dulcamara (woody nightshade/bittersweet); Rubus caesius (dewberry); Sambucus ebulus (danewort) and Sambucus nigra (elder);
Noncultivated (herbaceous) plants: Chenopodium sp. (goosefoot) and Chenopodium album (fat hen); Polygonaceae – Polygonum
arenastrum and Polygonum aviculare (knotgrass) and/or Bilderdykia [polygonum] convolvulus; Setaria viridis and S. verticillata, Lolium
perenne (perennial rye grass), Avena sp. (oat), Bromus sp. (brome grass)

Turkmenistan

Jeitun, Turkmenistan. Earlier Neolithic.
Boraginaceae
Heliotropium sp. 10 seeds. Samples of charred plant remains.
Reference: Charles and Bogaard 2005.