Notes on research methods in social sciences
(Argosy University)
FP 6030/MF6520/PC6520
Research and Evaluation Design/ Research and Assessment/ Research and Assessment
Thomas, J.C., & Hersen, M. (Eds.) (2003).  Understanding research in clinical and counseling psychology.  Routledge. (ebrary)
Clark-Carter, D. (2004).  Quantitative psychological research: A student’s handbook. New York: Psychology Press. (ebrary)
Auerback, C.F., & Silverstein, L.B. (2003).  Qualitative data: An introduction to coding and analysis. New York: New York University Press.
(ebrary)
Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 6th Ed. (2009). Washington D.C.: American Psychological Association.
Additional teacher's Resources:
Parker, I. (2005).  Qualitative psychology: Introducing radical research. Open University Press (ebrary)
Bordens, Kenneth S, and Abbott, B.B. (2008). Research Design and Methods, A Process Approach. 7th Ed. Mountain View, California: Mayfield
Publishing. ISBN: 978-0-07-312906-8
Milinki, A.K. (2006). A Cross Section of Psychological Research. 2nd Ed. Glendale, California: Pyrczak Publishing. ISBN: 1-884585-69-8
Patten, M. L. (Ed.). (2007). Understanding Research Methods, 6th Ed. Glendale, California: Pyrczak Publishing. ISBN: 1-884585-73-6

Teacher's instructions.
Dr Raymond Pace (Argosy University)
A literature review is a summary of previous research on a topic.  Literature reviews can be either a part of a larger report of a research
project,  a thesis or a bibliographic essay that is published separately in a scholarly journal. Some questions to think about as you develop
your literature review:
*What is known about the subject?
 *Are there any gaps in the knowledge of the subject?
 *Have areas of further study been identified by other researchers that you may want to consider?
 * Who are the significant research personalities in this area?
 * Is there consensus about the topic?
 * What aspects have generated significant debate on the topic?
 * What methods or problems were identified by others studying in the field and how might they impact your research?
 *What is the most productive methodology for your research based on the literature you have reviewed?
 * What is the current status of research in this area?
 * What sources of information or data were identified that might be useful to you?



Student's additional resources:

Fiske, W. & Shweder, R.A. (1986). Metatheory in Social Science: Pluralisms and Subjectivities. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

Gergen, K.J. (1994). Toward transformation in social knowledge. 2nd ed. Sage: Thousand Oaks, CA.

Hoshmand , L.T. (1996). Cultural psychology as metatheory. Journal of Theoretical and Philosophical Psychology, 16, 30-48.


Hopkins, W.G. (online) Quantitative Research Design. Retrieved from  http://www.sportsci.org/jour/0001/wghdesign.html

Hopkins, W.G., Marshall, S.W., Batterham, A.M. & Hanin, J. (online) Research design: Choosing and fine-tuning a design for your study (power
point presentation). Retrieved from http://www.sportsci.org/2008/wghdesign.htm

Learning center (online) Writing up Research Method and Research Design. http://www.languages.ait.ac.th/el21meth.htm

Martin, Erik & Osherson, Daniel N. (1998). Elements of scientific inquiry. Montgomery, Vt.: Bradford Books. (googlebooks.com)

Merrick, E. (1999). An Exploration of Quality in Qualitative. Are "Reliability" and "Validity" Relevant? In: Kopala, M. & Suzuki, L.A. (Eds.), Using
Qualitative Methods in Psychology (pp. 25-48) . SAGE Publications: Thousand Oaks, London & New Delhi.

Richter, F.M. (1986). Nonlinear behavior. In: Fiske, W. & Shweder, R.A. (1986). Metatheory in Social Science: Pluralisms and Subjectivities (pp.
284-292). Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

Notes:

Hoshmand, L.T. (1999). Locating the Qualitative Research Genre. In Kopala, M. & Suzuki, L.A. (Eds.), Using Qualitative Methods in
Psychology (pp. 15-24) . SAGE Publications: Thousand Oaks, London & New Delhi.
p. 17: [psychology as a cultural science]
The author argues that the cultural view of science "places epistemic judgments and other social judgments in communal processes". ... She
also believes that "researchers are accountable to the scientific/professional community, as well as to the larger community".
p. 22: it is stated that "if qualitative researchers are to become a community, more needs to be done to facilitate our internal discourse....
Communal agreements require openness and an investment in the process of discussion". ...
Hoshmand refers to Gergen (1994) who "suggested forming an alliance among the semiotic sciences, a move that would facilitate the
organization of knowledge from a sociological standpoint. Any community-building effort would involve the development of a common
language of understanding to enable metadiscourse and the complex negotiation of horizons".


Merrick, E. (1999). An Exploration of Quality in Qualitative. Are "Reliability" and "Validity" Relevant? In: Kopala, M. & Suzuki, L.A. (Eds.),
Using Qualitative Methods in Psychology (pp. 25-48) . SAGE Publications: Thousand Oaks, London & New Delhi.
p. 27
Lincoln and Guba (1985):
Internal validity and credibility
(a) prolonged engagement
(b) triangulation
(c) peer debriefing
(d) negative case analysis
(e) referential adequacy
(f) member checking
External validity and transferability
...  "the thick description necessary to enable someone interested in making a transfer to reach a conclusion about whether transfer can be
contemplated as a possibility" (Lincoln and Guba, 1985, p. 316).        
Reliability and dependability
Objectivity and  confirmability (accuracy of the product)



Merrick, Elizabeth (1999). An Exploration of Quality in Qualitative Research. Are "Realibility" and "Validity" Relevant? In: Kopala, M. &
Suzuka, Lisa A. Using Qualitative Methods in Psychology (pp. 25-36). Thousand Oaks, London, New Delhi: Sage Publications.

p. 27 Stiles (1993) offers "three types of validity that depend on fit or agreement
a) coherence - quality of interpretation determined by readers;
b) testimonial validity - accuracy of interpretation as determined by participants;
c) consensus/stability/replication - interpretations as discussed with their investigators, often through peer debriefing".

Merrick also refers to Stiles' three types of validity "that depend on change or growth
a) uncovering and self-evidence - evaluations of fruitfulness and "fit" by readers
b) catalytic validity - the degree to which the research process "reorients, focuses, and energizes participants"
c) reflexive validity - evaluation of how theory or an investigator's way of thinking is changed by the data."

p. 30
The author offers the following evaluation questions:
"How were the data analyzed?
How did the researcher determine when to stop collecting data?
By what processes were interpretations made?
Do these interpretations make sense?
Were these check out with participants?
With other researchers?
Did changes occur in the researcher's understanding or theory on the basis of what was found?"


Thomas & Hersen (Eds.) (2003).
p. 5  ... the scientific method... involves the systematic and deliberate gathering and evaluating of empirical data, and generating and testing
hypotheses based upon general psychological knowledge and theory, in order to answer questions that are answerable and “critical.”
pp. 5-6 ... science, and professional effectiveness can be thought of as the observation, identification, description, empirical investigation, and
theoretical explanation of natural phenomena.
p. 6 Ideally, conclusions are based upon observation and critical analyses, and not upon personal opinions (i.e., biases) or authority.